Metaphorical Framing in Local and International News Reporting

This study investigates the role of metaphor in news reporting by focusing on one US event, the historic 2012 Chicago Teachers Union (CTU) strike and compares its coverage in local and international English-language news. We are particularly interested in finding out how a news story, like the CTU strike, with strong localised metaphorical discourses, can be presented to readers outside the local and national cultural speech communities. In this sense, the research also contributes to understanding how themedia can affect the portrayal and reception of important social events by usingmetaphorical language in newspaper coverage. Employing a qualitative research approach of Discourse Analysis and drawing on Critical Metaphor Analysis (Charteris-Black 2004), a particular focus is put on salientmetaphor use across contexts (Goatly 2002) and on the role of reporters andnewswire services in thepresentationof facts. Thefindings indicate that both local and international news chiefly rely on two types of metaphor, journey and conflict. Notable differences were found in how the conflictmetaphors were expressed in the two contexts.


Introduction
Media are responsible for the transmission of knowledge across languages and cultures worldwide, and their discourses have the potential to shape opinions, influence attitudes, and trigger behavioural patterns (see Downing et al. 2004). Media construct social meanings and allow for their wide circulation in diversified contexts. They also decide which aspects of social reality to make into an issue of general concern, by providing not just a selection of information to be made available to the public, but also by imposing an order and hierarchical structuring to it. Media establish priorities by foregrounding and backgrounding information, by giving voice and hence salience to certain issues while at the same time silencing others. Furthermore, they function as historical depositories of information since their records represent the tangible counterparts of volatile and elusive collective memories about facts.
In the literature, this capacity of mass media to transform facts into 'discursive events', which may support political or economic interests and favour particular social groups by giving prominence to their worldviews and ideological leanings, is generally referred to as their framing potential (see e.g. Lakoff 1996Lakoff , 2014Entman 1993;Gamson 1992;Reese et al. 2003). News discourse has a vast array of framing devices at its disposal, which may be expected to affect reception and guide understanding by the public (see Fairhurst and Sarr 1996, Gamson and Modigliani 1989, Van Gorp 2005. Journalists can adopt different framing techniques when reporting on facts, such as selecting a topic, planning on headlines, leads and concluding statements, choosing sources, deciding to report, quote or paraphrase, and using images to support the argumentation. While these important strategies have more to do with structural (or graphic, in the case of images) components of journalistic texts, other framing devices such as keywords, repetitions, slogans, and metaphors affect journalistic contents more directly. The use of metaphor, in particular, seems to be pervasive in news reporting, where it plays a central framing function. As Semino (2008, 91)  Previous studies show that demonstrations, revolts, and situations of social unrest are framed metaphorically in media discourse, and that metaphor can function as an important ideological framing device in their media representations (Fridolfsson 2008;Hart 2014aHart , 2014bHart , 2017. Research also shows that metaphors are connected to culture and their use as well as their implications can change depending on the cultural contexts in which they circulate (Kövecses 2005).
Fitting into this previous research, the study presented here also contributes to understanding how the media can affect the portrayal and reception of important social events by using metaphorical language in newspaper coverage. The study investigates the role of metaphor in news reporting by focusing on one US story about social protesting in education, the historic 2012 Chicago Teachers Union (CTU) strike and comparing its coverage in local and international English-language news. We are particularly interested in finding out how a news story, like the CTU strike, with strong localised metaphorical discourses, can be presented to consumers outside the local and national cultural speech communities. When metaphor is analysed from a comparative local vs. international point of view, a range of questions arises: what metaphors are employed in international English-language news coverage of one US local story, and how does this metaphor use compare to coverage in situ? How do news wire services use metaphor in international English-language coverage of the same story?
The present study employs a qualitative research approach of Discourse Analysis. It considers salient metaphor use across contexts (Goatly 2002) and scrutinises the role of reporters and news wire services in the presentation of facts. The study is based on two main working hypotheses. First, we hypothesise that the rootedness of the reported event, the 2012 CTU strike, in a micro-cultural context will entail a different portrayal of the same story in local vs. international news. Our second hypothesis is that, because of the pervasiveness of metaphor in media discourse, metaphorical depictions will characterise the reporting of the event in both the local and the international news.
On the back of these working hypotheses, the study will explore whether there are differences in metaphor usage when comparing local vs. international reporting of the CTU strike, and, in case differences emerge, whether they can be related to the type of target readership and their assumed expectations.
The paper will first review the literature and the theoretical framework of reference (section 2). The discussion will then focus on a range of methodological concerns of the research (section 3). This will introduce the results of the data and their critical discussion (section 4). In the conclusion (section 5), the major findings will be summarised and commented on, and some implications of the study will be presented.

Theoretical Framework
Our study is couched in a long tradition of linguistic research on discourse and metaphor in the media. In the fields of sociology and media and communication studies, a variety of theories are used that approach media discourse from the vantage points of agendasetting, priming, and framing (see e.g. Entman 1993, Gamson 1992, McCombs 1997, McCombs and Shaw 1972, Weaver 2007. While these theories explore the role of the media in the construction of forms of discourse that are socially shared, a linguistic approach allows for a close analysis of language that can account accurately for the subtle meanings transmitted by media discourse, especially when it comes to evaluating the use of metaphorical language. In line with a linguistic approach, our investigation is guided by the insights of Critical Discourse Analysis and Critical Metaphor Analysis. This study shares the general approach of Critical Discourse Analysis (see e.g. Fairclough 1995Fairclough , 1999Wodak 2005). It looks at language in terms of discursive practices, has a critical eye on how contexts can affect language use, and questions textual representations that are influenced by producers as well as target receivers and can strategically transmit submerged ideologies.
In line with Critical Metaphor Analysis (Charteris-Black 2004), we consider metaphor as a conceptual and linguistic phenomenon that can act as a powerful means of persuasion or manipulation, especially when used by the media to prioritise one understanding of reality over others, and hence subtly influence processes of decision-making and subsequent, related behaviours. Beyond recognising the cognitive dimension intrinsic to metaphor, the critical analysis conducted here emphasises the strategic use of metaphor as a rhetorical device for projecting particular views and obtaining consensus. The actual interpretation of metaphor adopted in this study follows Charteris-Black, who defines metaphor as "any word or phrase that causes semantic tension at the linguistic, cognitive and pragmatic levels resulting in a shift in domain use and having persuasive potential of influencing opinions and judgements" (2004,21). Accordingly, this study analyses metaphor in its contexts of use and explores the potential motivations for its use. Our analysis of metaphor in news reporting is also based on the postulated distinction between "linguistic metaphors" or "metaphorical expressions" and "conceptual metaphors" as their underlying image-schema structures or cross-domain mappings (Lakoff and Johnson 1980). Still in line with Critical Metaphor Analysis, the approach taken is corpus-based since the analysis is carried out on authentic textual data, a large number of newspaper articles in English from different sources worldwide.
Previous studies have already explored the strategic and ideological uses of metaphor in the media. Charteris-Black (2017), for instance, discusses how media recurrently use FIRE metaphors to talk about protest and protesters, and how this can trigger negative evaluations of the event and the people involved because of our experientially grounded understanding of fire as a destructive force. Hart (2017) examines media coverage of the historic British Miners' Strike of 1984-1985 to unveil media strategies of (de)legitimisation. To that aim, he considers the potential ideological functions of one specific metaphorical framing of the strike as a war between the State and the National Union of Miners. Johnson (2007) scrutinises the various metaphors employed by the media in the United States with the covert aim of legitimising the "English-Only" movement and justifying "Proposition 203: English for the children".
A number of studies have also examined how the media rely on culture-bound types of metaphors as discursive strategies that can engage or entice their audiences. Media outlets, for instance, have been observed to employ culturally salient metaphors to make consumers feel more involved in political discourse (Archakis and Tsakona 2010).
Mass-mediated metaphor is highly culture-bound, evoking frames salient to local contexts (Medhurst andDeSousa 1981, Hallett andHallett 2012) and perpetuating them through repetition (Semino 2008). With respect to metaphor in the media, "a combination of repetition and recurrence can lead to the formation of 'chains' of connected metaphorical expression in texts" (Semino 2008, 24).
While the research cited here considers metaphor in the media within shared cultures, it does not give sufficient attention to the intersections of metaphor and media in English both within and outside its local source. This aspect will be addressed and critically discussed in the present study.

Research Design
Our research uses an approach of Discourse Analysis to local and international Englishlanguage news coverage of one US story, the historic 2012 Chicago Teachers Union (CTU) strike. It considers salient metaphor use across contexts (local vs. international) and scrutinises the role of reporters and news wire services in the (re)presentation of facts. Even though some numerical data are provided, the orientation of the research is chiefly qualitative in the sense that it is descriptive and interpretative, in line with Critical Discourse Analysis and Critical Metaphor Analysis.

Research Context
There are a number of factors in discourse around education in Chicago that were relevant to the September 2012 CTU strike. Most significantly, the 2012 strike was the first in two and a half decades, after tumultuous labour negotiations resulted in a series of Chicago teacher strikes in the 1980s.
Major stakeholders in the 2012 scenario, aside from the teachers, students, and parents, included Chicago mayor Rahm Emanuel and CTU leader Karen Lewis. Emanuel became Chicago's mayor after a stint as President Barack Obama's Chief of Staff. As Emanuel is a White northsider from an affluent suburb, and many of his efforts as mayor focused on affluent, largely White areas of the city, he was considered an outsider by many Chicagoans. The fact that he sent his own children to private school did not help this image. Karen Lewis is a former Chicago Public Schools high school teacher and was President of the Chicago Teachers' Union from 2010-2018. She is African American and lives on the south side of Chicago, which has historically been populated by Black and Brown people. Thus, Emanuel and Lewis are polarised, which leads to proxy polarisation by union members, parents, administrators, Chicago residents, and other education stakeholders.
The timing of the strike occurred amid escalating violence among Chicago youth, and discussions at the district level about teacher merit pay, longer school days, 50-100 potential school closings (mostly in Black/ Brown neighbourhoods), and an increasing establishment of charter schools. The CTU voted to strike for the first time in 25 years, with teachers and students out of school from September 10-18, 2012.

Data Collection and Analysis Procedure
A LexisNexis search was conducted for coverage by English-language international news outlets during September 2012 (inclusive of the strike dates and surrounding context), using the keywords "Chicago teachers". Twenty-three articles were retrieved (four duplicates or near duplicates), amounting to 7,605 words in total and covering a time span from September 12, 2012 to September 20, 2012. Data were coded for name of paper, location, wire service, date, headline, linguistic metaphor in context, metaphor user (reporter, quoted speaker, etc.), and type of underlying conceptual metaphor. Table 1 provides an overview of the international papers (both wire and non-wire) retrieved from the search along with the number of articles addressing the issue of the CTU strike.  (2007). The analysis was three-fold. It was aimed at 1) identifying metaphorical linguistic expressions in the articles, 2) postulating underlying conceptual metaphors, and 3) reflecting on potential strategic uses and effects of the identified metaphors. Results from the two data sets were then compared, mostly qualitatively. International stories were also analysed qualitatively for patterns of metaphor use in reporting by wire service or by newspaper.

Results and Discussion
It was hypothesised that the CTU strike would be portrayed differently in local vs. international news given the fact that it originated in a specific cultural, social and political context, with which people outside of Chicago might not be too familiar. Given the pervasiveness of metaphor in media discourse, it was also hypothesised that metaphorical depictions of the strike would characterise the reporting of the event in both the local and the international news. The question of how metaphor was employed in the two data sets is addressed in the following sub-sections.
While many types of metaphor were present across both local and international stories (e.g. game, building, disease, water, reification, and personaification metaphors), two metaphor types prevailed across both data sets: journey and conflict (see Ritchie 2013 in which conflict subsumes war metaphors).
In Conceptual Metaphor Theory, conflict metaphors have been discussed since the very beginning as extremely prominent types of metaphors (see Lakoff and Johnson 1980). Any process with a temporal unfolding can be metaphorically conceptualised as a journey through space that involves participants/travellers, vehicles, stages, distance, speed, a direction, a destination, and potential obstacles on the way. In all of the analysed articles, the CTU strike as a stoppage of activities that lasted for more than a week and involved various stakeholders and negotiations, lent itself easily to metaphorical depictions in terms of a journey.
In a similar fashion, research has demonstrated that war metaphors are very common in all kinds of political discourse (Semino 2008), health (Demmen et al. 2015;Semino et al. 2017), and business (Koller 2005). This discursive circulation of war metaphors in various domains has to do with the vast applicability of the war frame. As Semino points out, "any domain of experience that involves difficulties, danger, effort and uncertain outcomes" (2008: 100) is likely to be metaphorically conceptualised through a war frame. Furthermore, framing an issue in terms of a metaphorical war involves certain rhetorical effects that can cause evaluative and affective reactions. In this respect, Semino (2008) remarks that "the use of war metaphors tends to dramatize the opposition between different participants in politics (who are constructed as enemies), and to emphasize the aggressiveness and seriousness of political debates, conflicts or elections" . Adding yet a further perspective, Flusberg et al. (2018) discuss war metaphors as shared cultural frames that convey a message efficiently and produce an effect of urgency toward action for the receiver.
Closer to our current investigation, previous research has also shown that forms of political protest and demonstration are often rendered in the media by relying on war metaphors. Fridolfsson (2008) On the background of this research, the present section accounts for the specific metaphor usage characterising the local coverage of the 2012 CTU strike from the Chicago Tribune data and the international English-language coverage of the same event. The focus will be on the different linguistic instantiations of the identified conceptual metaphors of journey and conflict. The discussion will also qualitatively compare the local and global frames for metaphor use in media coverage that emerged from the analysis.
This section will conclude with a comparison between wire and non-wire coverage of the international news in terms of metaphor use. imaginative manner (see Cockcroft and Cockcroft 2014). Metaphors, therefore, can be extremely powerful in giving shape and directing people's emotions. That said, it is also reasonable to expect that the degree of engagement will vary depending on the actual wordings that verbalise a conceptual metaphor. In the Chicago Tribune data, one can find a clear tendency to verbalise the conflict metaphor by choosing linguistic expressions that are remarkably vivid and pictorial, and hence likely to provoke strong reactions in the readers.

Metaphors in Local Coverage of the 2012 CTU Strike
In order to substantiate further the observations that have been provided so far, the remainder of this section will offer some elucidative exemplification from the Chicago Tribune data, and comment on the expected potential effects of metaphor use in these journalistic texts by focusing on journey and conflict metaphors.
In line with the general trend observed above, journey metaphors were found to be employed chiefly by reporters and only to a very small extent by Lewis and a few other stakeholders. Example (1) comes from the article "CPS leader optimistic after talks: Official: District, union close to 'endgame' with latest contract proposal" published 9/9/2012. Here, CPS School Board President David Vitale uses two journey metaphors to describe contract negotiations with the Chicago Teachers' Union.
(1) "This is a proposal that we believe is very close to what is needed to get a deal.
We have listened and we have moved dramatically on almost all of the issues." In example (1) While the contract talks and negotiations are frequently described as a journey, invoking a course, impasse, and hurdles, Lewis and CTU members are often featured using the journey metaphor to describe the solidarity among Chicago teachers and CTU's vision of public education. This is exemplified in (2), from the 9/19/2012 article "BACK TO SCHOOL: Classes resume today as union ends walkout; Labor chief claims victory in changing evaluation, rehiring proposals; Emanuel secures longer day".
(2) "The unity we gained is going to move us forward, and we'll continue to fight for the soul of public education." In this example, teacher Haley Underwood uses a journey metaphor to describe teacher unity as propelling forward a movement toward a shared goal of maintaining "the soul (3) "To me, it looked like two strong egos that weren't going to back down," said Mahr, the father of two CPS students. "Nobody wins. Everybody compromises, and the students are the ones that bleed the most." Apart from the metaphorical depiction of the contract negotiations as a conflict between two opposing sides, what is particularly striking in example (3)   As a way of summarising and highlighting some of the main results emerging from the analysis of metaphorical language usage in the local news coverage, we would like to recap in Table 2 the main pragmatic uses of journey and conflict metaphors that we identified in the Chicago Tribune.  Further comparative observations on the findings will be discussed in the following subsections.

Metaphors in International English-language Coverage of the 2012 CTU Strike
The international readership is not exposed to the same contexts, and thus metaphorical framing is expected to be different from the local readership in Chicago. Accordingly, the data reveal both qualitative and quantitative differences in metaphor usage between the two sets of data, particularly in relation to conflict metaphors.
Since the dataset for the international stories was remarkably smaller than the one for the local news coverage (7,608 vs. 98,200 words), the overall number of metaphors in the international news was possible to count, and totalled 292. As 35 of these metaphors    There were also a few instances in the international coverage that are indicative of some highly culturally-specific metaphors that would be expected to be salient to the US readership but not to readers outside of the US. This is exemplified in (6), which is taken from 9/10/2012 article "Chicago Teachers Go on Strike" from The Times of Oman.
(6) … establishing a recall procedure for teachers who had been laid off as a result of school closings, consolidations and turnarounds.
The word turnarounds, a journey metaphor, refers to turnaround schools, a controversial American model of school improvement in which designated low-performing schools receive an intervention that usually involves, among other measures, the replacement of a substantial proportion of administration and teaching faculty. Counter to our expectations, no explanation or rephrasing of this metaphorical cultural concept was present in the international article addressing a non-American readership.
In terms of mere wording, the international news were found to share a good number of journey metaphors with the local news. These shared metaphorical expressions comprise backtrack (ed), block, close, course, direction, dragging on, impasse, go on strike, hike, hurdle, lead/led/leading, momentum, move/moved, movement, progress, push/pushes, reach an agreement, turnarounds, walked out, walked off the job, and walkout. There were, however, also instances of the journey metaphor that were not found in the local news coverage and are thus unique to the international data set. These include nears, distance himself, walk a fine line, clear(ed) the way, reach a deal, and retreated.
As pointed out above, instantiations of the conflict metaphor comprise less of the metaphor use among international English-language newspapers. One outstanding example of a conflict metaphor in the international coverage comes from the non-wire London paper The Independent, in the 9/18/2012 story, "Obama's man in Chicago in legal bid to stop strikes." Anything that associates him with Mr Rahm's perceived assault on the teachers' union could be perilous.
Example (7) is the only case in which the word assault is used in international reporting, the term being arguably the upper limit of aggression in the international data. The same term only appears in the Chicago Tribune data within a quote from CTU leader Karen Lewis ("'The assault on public education started here. It needs to end here,' Lewis said, drawing thunderous applause from the crowd", from 9/12/2012 article "A lot of talk, little progress"). While in both the local and the international news, the word assault is used only once, the term is embedded in diverse types of discourses in the two data sets.
In the case of international news, assault remains an isolated allusion to violence. In the local news, to the contrary, the word is part and parcel of a metaphorical depiction of the CTU strike that emphasises physical aggressiveness and plays on readers' fears.
Other expressions of the conflict metaphor exclusive to the international data are, bare-knuckled, losing side, and toe-to-toe. These are certainly metaphors of conflict, with toe-to-toe highlighting the aspect of direct confrontation and bare-knuckled that of fierceness, but overall, they lack the kind of graphic and warlike undertones that characterise conflict metaphors in the local news.

Comparison of Local and Global Frames for Metaphor Use in Media Coverage
Instantiations of the conflict and journey metaphors were present in both local and international English-language coverage, but they varied in usage and emotional exploitation (see Hendricks et al. 2018). As explained above, in contrast to the Chicago Tribune reporting, international English-language strike coverage employed far more journey metaphors than conflict metaphors.
In general, the use of journey metaphors did not appear as strikingly different in the two data sets, even though some variation was noted. As pointed out above, many Furthermore, that the metaphors in both sets of data are overwhelmingly employed in reporting (rather than in quote or paraphrase) speaks to the power and agency (Semino 2017) of the reporters to shape public discourse (Hallett 2013, Hallett andHallett 2012).
The graphic imagery presented metaphorically in the Chicago Tribune data suggests a degree of emotional manipulation given the localised tensions at this time with respect to school closings, race, politics, and violence in Chicago.

Comparison of Metaphor Use in International Wire coverage versus Paper-based Coverage
As stated above, there are only two international papers that did not employ wire ser- For the papers using wire services, the most prevalent metaphors were journey (n=39; 5 quoted/paraphrased, 34 reported), conflict (n=25; 3 quoted/paraphrased, 22 reported), and BUILDING (n=16; 6 reported/paraphrased, 10 reported). While there is not enough data analysed here to make a generalisation, the most striking comparison between the wired and non-wired papers is the prevalence of journey metaphors in the former and the lack of journey metaphors in the latter.

Implications and Conclusion
Examining metaphor across English-language news discourse can help uncover deeprooted and self-replicating micro-cultural conceptualisation systems (Kövecses 2005), and -critically -the behavioural consequences potentially resulting from participating in these shared frames (Hendricks et al. 2018). This study examines metaphor use in the same language across different cultural contexts and found one set particularly rife with graphically violent imagery. That the discourse in question relates to the education of children is unarguably troubling.
Goatly (2002) suggests we adopt better metaphors for discourse about education. Semino et al. (2017) examine both violence and journey metaphors for cancer, and find neither inherently bad, and both as potentially empowering or disempowering. Hendricks et al. (2018) in their work with metaphor and cancer find war metaphors particularly unhelpful, as they are often "violent, masculine, and power-based" (268).
"Most crucially, the battle metaphor presents lack of recovery as defeat, and hence potentially as a personal failure" (Hendricks et al. 2018, 269). Hendricks et al. suggest adopting more journey metaphors, which the UK had already taken up with respect to national cancer discourse (Semino et al. 2017).
Ritchie (2013) and Lakoff (2014) reflect on metaphor and framing with respect to a breakdown in commonality of expectations. "When participants in a policy debate understand issues in terms of conflicting or contradictory frames, generated by different metaphors, facts will not resolve the differences" (Ritchie 2013, 109).
The comparison between prevalent metaphor types in English-language education news discourse, and variation within those metaphor types, reveals some linguistic differences in how the same story, the CTU strike, which is embedded in a micro-culture, is reported in English to a local vs. an international readership. Both local and interna-tional news were found to rely chiefly on two types of conceptual metaphors, journey and conflict, with journey metaphors having a similar share in the two data sets and conflict metaphors being much more frequent in the local coverage.
The fact that local and international news employ journey metaphors to a comparable extent and also rely on a largely shared metaphorical vocabulary in order to express them, may indicate that this type of metaphorical framing is salient in discourse about any kind of events that unfold over time, i.e. that are conceptualised as a process. In contrast to conflict metaphors, journey metaphors appear as more emotionally neutral since they capture concepts related to motion or the lack thereof while conflict metaphors evoke a more physical and violent imagery which increases the emotional immediacy of reader responses.
The comparison of the local vs. the international news indeed indicates this difference as, in contrast to journey metaphors, conflict metaphors are wildly different across the two datasets. Chicago readers are more likely to be emotionally invested in the content of the articles. The violent language used in the local reporting of events, rather than in quoted speech, reflects a framing that emotionally manipulates a readership facing dozens of school closings in Black and Brown communities, which are downplayed or erased in the international coverage, not requiring such graphic imagery. The actual selection of words speaks of a tension between the immediacy of reporting the event in Chicago and the emotional distance characterising the international news. These findings raise the possibility that there is a socially conditioned connection between violence and education in Chicago.
We take the position here that we must assess the prevailing public discourses, including figurative language use, around social concerns such as public education. Then we must surmise the producers, users, and perpetuators of these discourses, raise awareness of the discourses, and actively work to change those that are problematic.